BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF JOB ANALYSIS

A detailed examination of jobs, while necessary, can be a demanding and threatening experience for both managers and employees, in part because job analysis can identify the difference between what currently is being performed in a job and what should be done. Job analysis involves determining what the “core” job is. This determination may require discussion with managers about the design of the job. Often the content of a job may reflect the desires and skills of the incumbent employee. For example, in one firm a woman promoted to office manager continued to spend considerable time opening and sorting the mail because she had done that duty in her old job. Yet she needed to be supervising the work of the eight clerical employees more and should have been delegating the mail duties to one of the clerks. Her manager indicated that opening and sorting mail was not one of the top five tasks of her new job, and the job description was written to reflect this. The manager also met with the employee to discuss what it meant to be a supervisor and what duties should receive more emphasis.

Job “Inflation”

Employees and managers also have some tendency to inflate the importance and significance of their jobs. Because job analysis information is used for compensation purposes, both managers and employees hope that “puffing up” their jobs will result in higher pay levels.

Titles of jobs often get inflated also, and some HR specialists believe that it is

becoming worse. Some firms give fancy titles in place of pay raises, while others do it to keep well-paid employees from leaving for “status” reasons. Some industries, such as banking and entertainment, are known for having more title inflation than others. For instance, banking and financial institutions use officer designations to enhance status. In one small Midwestern bank, an employee who had three years’ experience as a teller was “promoted” with no pay increase to Second Vice-President and Senior Customer Service Coordinator. She basically became the lead teller when her supervisor was out of the bank and now could sign a few customer-account forms.

Managerial Straitjacket

Through the information developed in a job analysis, the job description is supposed to capture the nature of a job. However, if it fails—if some portions of the job are mistakenly left out of the description—some employees may use that to limit managerial flexibility. The resulting attitude, “It’s not in my job description,” puts a straitjacket on a manager. In some organizations with unionized workforces, very restrictive job descriptions exist.

Because of such difficulties, the final statement in many job descriptions is a

miscellaneous clause, which consists of a phrase similar to “Performs other duties as needed upon request by immediate supervisor.” This statement covers unusual situations that may occur in an employee’s job. However, duties covered by this phrase cannot be considered essential functions under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Also, it may be important to develop flexible work role definitions, particularly in manufacturing operations.

Current Incumbent Emphasis

As suggested earlier, it is important that a job analysis and the resulting job description and job specifications should not describe just what the person currently doing the job does and what his or her qualifications are. The person may have unique capabilities and the ability to expand the scope of the job to assume more responsibilities.

The company would have difficulty finding someone exactly like that individual if he or she left. Consequently, it is useful to focus on the core jobs and necessary KSAs by determining what the jobs would be if the current incumbents quit or were no longer available to do the jobs.

Employee Anxieties

One fear that employees may have concerns the purposes of a detailed investigation of their job. Management should explain why the job analysis is being done, because some employees may be concerned that someone must feel they have done something wrong if such a detailed look is being taken. The attitude behind such a fear might be, “As long as no one knows precisely what I am supposed to be doing, I am safe.”

Also, some employees may fear that an analysis of their jobs will put a “straitjacket” on them, limiting their creativity and flexibility by formalizing their duties. However, it does not necessarily follow that analyzing a job will limit job scope or depth. In fact, having a well-written, well-communicated job description can assist employees by clarifying what their roles are and what is expected of them. Perhaps the most effective way to handle anxieties is to involve the employees in the revision process.

ATTENTION:HR PROFESSIONALS CREATE A ONLINE PLAYING RECREATION

Human resource professionals often must deal with competing demands to recognize managerial demands for productivity while they consider the personal needs of organizational participants. The “hype” involving computer

networking often obscures the complex social issues involved. Even though

there are downturns in the high-tech economy, changes in the Internet applications available to employees are still fast paced. By the time research results are available to inform the decision making of HR departments, many of the issues involved will change in character. HR professionals should thus themselves be conversant with Internet applications and be aware of industry trends so as to be ready when new concerns emerge (such as increasingly sophisticated wireless Internet games).

As workplaces have evolved, so have the issues that have divided employers and managers. Some organizations have taken positive steps to help employees deal with workplace and home pressures and have recognized the importance of loyalty . However, conflict has ensued for decades on an assortment of matters relating to the quality of work life, often leading to dysfunctional confrontations . Today, employees who guess wrong about online recreation standards — or choose to violate them — often pay large penalties, even being demoted or fired. Some managers have devised negative sanctions for these infringements far more severe than those applied to comparable face-to-face interaction. OfficeNworkers paging through paper catalogs in idle minutes rarely face the harsh penalties that those caught shopping online often encounter, even though few computer systems can be construed as “overtaxed” by online shopping.

Companies have encountered considerable penalties as well: Microsoft agreed to a $2.2 million settlement in a sexual-harassment suit involving pornographic messages distributed in an organizational e-mail .

Hard-line positions against forms of online recreation may be required in

some instances and directly related to important organizational goals. For instance, air traffic controllers should be expected to keep focused on landing

real airplanes rather than escape into fantasy games during assigned hours.

However, some hard-line restrictions can reflect fear or lack of understanding of online realms. Management may assume that online recreation will foster or encourage Internet addiction or related concerns. “Internet addiction” has become a widely identified syndrome, although its medical underpinnings are still in question . The kinds of non-work activities that are allowed in organizations often mirror managerial culture and values, from softball teams to holiday celebrations. Hard-line restrictions against online recreation and the monitoring of workstations to implement them are of symbolic importance, signaling to organizational participants the “proper” way to view the online workplace and themselves as human beings. Overly restricting online recreation may prevent employees from exploring the full potential of the Internet for productive intellectual and social endeavors.

However, a laissez-faire approach may also serve to demoralize workplaces by allowing some individuals to exploit the diligence of team members and possibly even disturb the sensibilities of unfortunate onlookers.

Ambiguities concerning online work and play in virtual realms are increasingly adding complexities to these issues .

It is often difficult to tell which websites are related to business needs and which are recreational; many have dual purposes, combining amusement with news and other serious pursuits. Slashdot.org has humorous material as well as valuable technical commentary, and abcnews.com has stories on upcoming movies as well as current economic results. Helpful intelligent agents (some with cartoon-like manifestations) can add levity to everyday tasks. Surfing the Internet for an answer to a question or fiddling with various programs can interfere with productive effort, as individuals dwell on technological nuances. Perfecting an organizational newsletter’s format can be so involving that individuals lose a sense of proportion as to its business relevance. Managers and employees need to deal not only with recreational concerns but also with broader issues of how to integrate computing into workplaces in ways that are engaging yet productive.

Workplace realities have changed in a tightening economy, and few expect that stability and continuity will replace flux. For many employees the social and recreational activities that are needed for them to function optimally have to be obtained during breaks and unoccupied moments in the workplace rather than after-work initiatives. Many employees (especially in high-tech fields) are on call for long periods, with their know-how required for troubleshooting networks or debugging software programs. Online recreation is part of some individuals’ efforts to make these lengthy and demanding working hours more tolerable. A number of online recreational activities can be conducted while productive activity is going on, in a kind of human multitasking. Such multitasking can provide problems if individuals overreach their capacities, in ways comparable to the problem of drivers who engage in cell phone conversations on the road . Individuals can check online sports scores while on hold for a telephone call, which can relieve frustration. However, online recreation should not be exploited as a means to keep individuals glued to workstations for indefinite periods in lieu of reasonable work schedules and functional work-life balances.

Solutions as to how to couple online work and play are emerging in

organizations that are tailored to specific workplace contexts. Managers and

employees are gaining important experience in resolving these issues as

individuals perform activities away from direct supervision via mobile or virtual office configurations. Managers are learning how to perform their functions without direct employee surveillance. Employees are learning higher levels of self-discipline and the skills of balancing online work and play — just as they have learned to balance face-to-face schmoozing with task orientation in the physical world. Thus setting severe restrictions on online recreation can serve to slow down the process of understanding how to migrate the organization

into virtual realms and establish trust. Responsibility and respect for others

in these realms can be difficult to acquire, and many employees will indeed need direction. Those who stray from “netiquette” standards in online discussions are generally given guidance as to how they have deviated. Similar kinds of community and peer support will help individuals use recreation constructively in online contexts.

SAMPLE ATTENDANCE POLICY

SUBJECT: ATTENDANCE AND PUNCTUALITY
APPLIES TO: ALL EMPLOYEES
Policy:  It is the policy of XYZ Company to establish reasonable and necessary controls to ensure adequate attendance and to meet business and production needs.
Procedure:
1.    Working schedules and starting times are established by the Department Supervisor or Manager based on business and production needs . The Department Supervisor is responsible for communicating work schedules to subordinates.
2.    Employees are expected to be at their work station in a fit condition and ready to work at starting time. Work activity should commence at starting times and continue until the normal designated stopping times for breaks, lunch, or the end of work.
3.    In the event of absence or tardiness from an assigned work schedule, the employee is required to report the absence to the Company. When reporting absence, the employee must telephone his or her supervisor, or other designated individual as specified by management. In the event the employee cannot reach a Supervisor or Manager, the absence should be reported to the Human Resource Department. The employee must call within one hour of scheduled start time.
4.    The company reserves the right to require an employee to submit a physician’s certificate in the event of repeated absences for the medical reasons or in the event of medical absences exceeding three days.
5.    The company recognizes that an occasional absence may occur, as defined by Company policies for holidays, vacations, jury service, funerals, family and medical leave, personal leave, military leave, voting, etc. Time off from work is unpaid unless the Company has established a specific policy providing pay for time off.
6.    An employee’s absence will be considered excused if covered by policy and the employee provides proper and timely notification deemed satisfactory to the Supervisor or Manager. Timely notification means calling in on the day of absence or providing advance notice for absences which can be anticipated.
7.    An employee’s absence will be deemed unexcused when an employee fails to call in,  gives a late notice, fails to give advance notice for an absence which could be anticipated , exceeds the number of length of absences as defined by policy or authorized in advance by the Supervisor or Manager. Unexcused absentees are subject to corrective discipline or termination as defined in policies on discipline and separation of employment.
8.    Excessive absenteeism is defined as two or more instances of unexcused absence in a calendar month. Such excessive absenteeism is subject to corrective discipline. Any eight instances of unexcused absenteeism in a calendar year are considered grounds for discharge.
9.    In the event an employee is absent for three days or more without prior notice or approval, such absence is viewed as job abandonment. The employee is then separated from employment as a voluntary quit.
10.    In the event a nonexempt employee reports to work late, he or she will be docked for time missed. Any lateness of up to six minutes shall result in loss of pay equivalent to 1/10 of an hour for each six minutes of lateness or portion thereof.
11.    Excessive tardiness shall be subjected to corrective discipline or termination. Excessive tardiness is defined as three or more instance of lateness in a calendar month and is subject to corrective discipline. Any 12 instances of lateness in a calendar year are considered grounds for discharge.
12.    An employee’s request to leave work early may be considered by the Supervisor or Manager. Approval of such absences should be based upon the urgency of the reason for absence and department staffing needs. As a general guide, early leaving should not exceed one instance per month or five instances in a calendar year.
13.    The Personnel Records Clerk is responsible for maintaining attendance records and for advising respective supervisors if an employee’s absence or lateness exceeds the guidelines of this policy.

ASSESSING HR EFFECTIVENESS

Productivity, quality, service, absenteeism, and turnover are all measurable—and they are related to the way activities are performed in an organization. Yet, there is a long-standing myth that one cannot really measure what the HR function does.

That myth has hurt HR departments in some cases, because it suggests that any

value added by HR efforts is somehow “mystical” or “magical.” None of that is true; HR—like marketing, legal, or finance—must be evaluated based on the value it adds to the organization. Defining and measuring HR effectiveness is not as straightforward as it might be in some more easily quantifiable areas, but it can be done.

Effectiveness for organizations is often defined as the extent to which goals have been met. Efficiency is the degree to which operations are done in an economical manner. Efficiency can also be thought of as cost per unit of output. To be effective, organizations must be able to achieve their goals, but must reach them using limited resources efficiently. For example, providing on-site child care for all employees might help an employer to achieve an effectiveness goal of reducing turnover, but it could be too expensive (reducing efficiency of expenditures) for that employer to implement.

Other departments, managers, and employees are the main “customers” for HR services. If those services are lacking, too expensive, or of poor quality, then the organization may have to consider outsourcing some HR activities. The HR department is an organization within an organization. What it does (or does not do) affects the entire organizational system. To function effectively, HR needs a clear vision of what it does and whom it serves. That perspective should unify the HR staff and provide a basis for making decisions. HR can position itself as a partner in an organization, but only by demonstrating to the rest of the organization that there are real links between what HR activities contribute and organizational results. To demonstrate to the rest of the organization that the HR unit is a partner with a positive influence on the bottom line of the business, HR professionals must be prepared to measure the results of HR activities. Then the HR unit must communicate that information to the rest of the organization.

Measurement is a key to demonstrating the success of the HR activities.

The contribution of the HR unit’s efforts to organizational effectiveness and the efficiency of the department’s activities should both be measured. Studies of large and medium-sized firms in the United States have found relationships between the best HR practices and reduced turnover and increased employee productivity.

Further, those practices enhanced profitability and market value of the firms studied. A high-quality, highly motivated workforce is hard for competition to

replicate, which is an advantage that improves organizational effectiveness. Data to evaluate performance can come from several sources. Some of those

sources are already available in most organizations, but some data may have to be collected. Considered here are using existing HR records, an HR audit, HR research for assessment, and exit interviews.

Assessing HR Effectiveness Using Records

With the proliferation of government regulations, the number of required records has expanded. Of course, the records are useful only if they are kept current and properly organized. Managers who must cope with the paperwork have not always accepted such record-keeping requirements easily. Also, many managers feel that HR records can be a source of trouble because they can be used to question past managerial actions.

Another view of HR record-keeping activities is that HR records serve as important documentation should legal challenges occur. Disciplinary actions, past performance appraisals, and other documents may provide the necessary “proof” that employers need to defend their actions as job related and nondiscriminatory.

Records and data also can provide a crucial source of information to audit or assess the effectiveness of any unit, and they provide the basis for research into possible causes of HR problems. The HR Perspective reports on a study of the effectiveness.

Jac Fitz-Enz, who studies HR effectiveness, has suggested some diagnostic measures from records to check the effectiveness of the HR function. Note how each of the following measures requires accurate records and a comprehensive human resource information system:

-HR expense per employee

-Compensation as a percent of expenses

-HR department expense as a percent of total expenses

-Cost of hires

-Turnover rate

-Absence rate

-Workers compensation cost per employee

ADVERTISERS

Advertisers, hackers, scammers, private investigators, and government agencies all have motivations to learn as much as they can about Internet users

in general and about specific Internet user activities and habits. Advertisers and their agencies must get their product or service information to potential customers. Hackers and scammers are interested in pushing their abilities to gain access, sometimes to wreak havoc, other times to take advantage Private investigators and government agencies have new surveillance challenges because of the Internet.

For each of these situations, two events need to occur: the intruder must learn how to identify the “target” computer, and the intruder must establish a communication with the “target” computer. The communication might be in the Unsolicited Web Intrusions: rm of sending an e-mail or pop-up window directly, or it might involve monitoring keystroke or mouse click activities, reading stored data, or modifying messages sent to the target browser by other computers.

For the purpose of identifying the target computer, a variety of techniques and technologies might be utilized. The two primary types of addresses are e-mail addresses and IP addresses (with or without the associated domain names). These addresses are available directly through a wide variety of listings and services, some of which users have willingly subscribed to, some of which users inadvertently or unwittingly participate in, and some of which are collected in clearly surreptitious ways that users must go to great pains and sometimes expense to avoid. In addition to listings that are available or created by third parties, intruders sometimes generate addresses and send probing messages, looking for an active target computer and a response. These addresses might be constructed randomly or use patterns composed of frequently used names, words, or other standard addressing combinations. Both IP addresses and e-mail addresses are used in this type of probe.

Internet users are often unaware of the intrusive capabilities of Internet technologies and the behaviors that permit the intrusions to occur. In addition

to Web surfing through a browser, many Internet users routinely participate in

chat sessions; play online games; register for prizes; respond to offers for free

software and services; and register preferences for news, sports scores, stock

quotes, music, entertainment, credit checks, and other seemingly innocuous elements. Furthermore, Internet users often search the Web for medical advice, financial advice, career advice, and the like — never suspecting that someone along the way might begin tracking the clicks for the purpose of targeting advertisements, profiling the user, or conducting surveillance activities. Any of these activities subject the target computer to intrusions such as pop-up window advertisements, click tracking, data retrieval, and browser hijacking .

Software and service providers are readily available to accommodate the needs of individuals and companies who wish to collect information from and about Internet users including their personal habits and data.

Many of these software and service providers are using the same technologies

that companies use to track the online activities of their employees. And even

in work-related use situations, Internet users are often trapped into giving personal information in exchange for the ability to access needed sites. Once

given, this information — without context, consent, or verification — is often

sold, used for other purposes, mined with other data to create profiles, or used

directly for targeting advertising pop-up windows or e-mails.

The result can be that unexpected, unsolicited, and unwanted messages can appear on an employee’s computer screen or in an employee’s e-mail, or the employee’s browsing can be interrupted because scumware has hijacked the browser and provided links to sites other than those that were intended and appropriate.

ACCEPTABLE USE POLICIES — CONTRACTS OF EMPLOYMENT

The rights of employers and employees in the workplace are often determined by the terms contained in employment contracts. This is so in relation to the issue of personal Web use in the workplace. As between employer and employee, the regulation of personal Web use is largely determined by the contract of employment or whatever industry agreements exist.

However, in determining the terms of such contracts, organizational Internet policies are key, since written employment contracts do not usually make specific reference to monitoring of personal Web use. Rather, organizational

rules regarding employee Internet use are usually stated in corporate policy manuals. The consequence of this is that rules governing employee Internet use

may or may not form part of an employment contract, depending on the manner in which such rules are drafted and the language used therein.

An organization’s policy on Internet use forms the nexus between employment

and privacy law. The status of enterprise policies regarding Internet use is well established: an employer’s policy regarding Web use is usually binding.

There have been numerous cases where an organization’s employment policies

have been held to form part of the terms of an employee’s employment contract.Consequently, the terms of a policy may bind the parties to the contract, i.e., both the employer and the employee.This is important in relation to lawsuits that may be brought by disgruntled employees: a breach of

organizational policy will often go a long way in proving that an employer is not

guilty of alleged misconduct.

This section examines the importance of giving “notice” to employees of an organization’s Internet policy, outlines the content that should be included in a

policy to reduce employer exposure to various types of liability, and discusses

the legal importance of enforcement of Internet use policies.

Enforceability and Notice

For an Internet use policy to apply to an employee or to form part of an employment contract, “notice” must be given of the policy. This means that the terms of the policy are communicated to an employee such that the employee understands that they constitute, in part, the terms on which they are retained to perform their professional duties.

When an employee has notice of an organizational employment policy, they must ensure that their conduct in performing their job conforms to the terms mandated by such policy, just as they are bound by terms expressly included in their employment contract, by statutes prohibiting illegal behavior, or by duties that are generally implied in an employment context, e.g., the duty to

perform duties with reasonable care, in a sober state, and without physically

harming co-workers.

It is important to note that once an employer has given notice to an employee of the terms of an Internet use policy, the implied consent on the part of the employee that arguably flows from such notice is an important defense to many actions that may be brought against the employer by the employee.

Adequate notice should be given to employees of the terms of an organization’s policy. This can be done by circulating the policy periodically via internal memoranda; placing it in employee handbooks, union contracts, or collective bargaining agreements; incorporating the policy into corporate intranets; referring to it at meetings; or placing reminder stickers on workplace computers. It should be noted that privacy rights advocates have argued that,

as a bare minimum, a “splash screen” warning should be displayed each time

an employee starts their computer, particularly where there is ongoing continuous monitoring of employee Internet use. When considering notice, it is in an employer’s interests to over-communicate the contents of its Internet use

policy.

ABSENTEEISM

Absenteeism is expensive, as seen in estimates that absenteeism nationally costs $505 per employee per year.49 Being absent from work may seem like a small matter to an employee. But if a manager needs 12 people in a unit to get the work done, and 4 of the 12 are absent most of the time, the unit’s work will probably not get done, or additional workers will have to be hired. Nationally, 7.2 days per employee are lost to absenteeism each year.

TYPES OF ABSENTEEISM - Employees can be absent from work for several reasons. Clearly, some absenteeism is unavoidable. People do get sick and have family issues such as sick children that make it impossible for them to attend work. This is usually referred to as involuntary absenteeism. However, much absenteeism is avoidable; it is called voluntary absenteeism. Often, a relatively small number of individuals in the workplace are responsible for a disproportionate share of the total absenteeism in an organization.

Because illness, death in the family, and other personal reasons for absences

are unavoidable and understandable, many employers have sick-leave policies

that allow employees a certain number of paid absent days per year. Absenteeism tends to be highest in governmental agencies, utilities, and manufacturing firms. Absenteeism is lowest in retail/wholesale firms, possibly because those industries use a large percentage of part-time workers.

MEASURING ABSENTEEISM - Controlling or reducing absenteeism must begin with continuous monitoring of the absenteeism statistics in work units. Such monitoring helps managers pinpoint employees who are frequently absent and the departments that have excessive absenteeism.

CONTROLLING ABSENTEEISM - Controlling voluntary absenteeism is easier if managers understand its causes more clearly. However, there are a variety of thoughts on reducing voluntary absenteeism. Organizational policies on absenteeism should be stated clearly in an employee handbook and stressed by supervisors and managers. The policies and rules an organization uses to govern absenteeism may provide a clue to the effectiveness of its control. Studies indicate that absence rates are highly related to the policies used to control absenteeism.

Absenteeism control options fall into three categories: (1) discipline, (2) positive reinforcement, and (3) a combination of both. A brief look at each follows.

-Disciplinary approach: Many employers use a disciplinary approach. People who are absent the first time receive an oral warning, but subsequent absences

bring written warnings, suspension, and finally dismissal.

-Positive reinforcement: Positive reinforcement includes such methods as giving employees cash, recognition, time off, or other rewards for meeting attendance standards. Offering rewards for good attendance, giving bonuses for missing fewer than a certain number of days, and “buying back” unused sick

leave are all positive methods of reducing absenteeism.

-Combination approach: Combination approaches ideally reward desired behaviors and punish undesired behaviors. One of the most effective absenteeism control methods is to provide paid sick-leave banks for employees to use up to some level. Once that level is exhausted, then the employees may face the loss of some pay if they miss additional work unless they have major illnesses in which long-term disability insurance coverage would begin.

Another method is known as a “no-fault” absenteeism policy. Here, the reasons

for absences do not matter, but the employees must manage their time rather

than having managers make decisions about excused and unexcused absences.

Once absenteeism exceeds normal limits, then disciplinary action up to and including termination of employment can occur.

Some firms have extended their policies to provide a paid time-off (PTO) program in which vacation time, holidays, and sick leave for each employee are combined into a PTO account. Employees use days from their accounts at their

discretion for illness, personal time, or vacation. If employees run out of days in their accounts, then they are not paid for any additional days missed. The PTO programs generally have reduced absenteeism, particularly one-day absences, but overall, time away from work often increases because employees use all of “their” time off by taking unused days as vacation days.